Table 1 |
||
| Comparative pathologies of Varroa destructor and Nosema ceranae | ||
| Varroa destructor | Nosema ceranae | |
| Type of parasite | ectoparasite | endoparasite |
| Mode of action | Sucks hemolymph/transmits viruses | Attacks epithelium of the gut |
| Mode of transmission | Enters brood cell before operculation; phoresis-carried between cells by adult bees (males and females) | Oral transmission between workers, matrices of the hive |
| Stage(s) attacked | Nymph/adult | Adult |
| Physiological effects | Reduced weight, metabolism, vitellogenin titers, and proportion of normal hemocytes; increased ecdysteroid titers [24,25] | Increase oxidative stress; degeneration of gut epithelium [26]; reduced vitellogenin level [27]; induces pheromone (ethyl oleate) production [28] |
| Lifespan decrease [12] | Lifespan decrease | |
| Behavioral effects | Impaired orientation [22] | Impaired orientation [29] |
| Accelerated maturation [11,12] | Accelerated maturation [13,14] | |
| Faster habituation and lower response probability to odor stimulus but no change in sucrose response [30] | Increased sucrose response based on PER test [31] | |
McDonnell et al.
McDonnell et al. BMC Ecology 2013 13:25 doi:10.1186/1472-6785-13-25
