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Elimination of parasitic infections

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The idea that elimination of parasites and vectors in certain settings is achievable is gaining momentum. This is being driven, in part, by an increasing awareness that much can be done to reduce the morbidity and mortality caused by parasite infections by deploying existing tools, often based on drug donations from the pharmaceutical industry. In the past, targeted local elimination in isolated or island populations has been achieved, for example, hydatid disease (echinococcosis) in Iceland, Cyprus and New Zealand or sleeping sickness in São Tomé and Principe.

Encouraging examples of successful control and elimination of parasites and their vectors are now being reported in other settings and at a larger scale, including filariasis in China, Sri Lanka and the Republic of Korea and onchocerciasis in the Americas and in some settings in West Africa. Whilst successful control may be restricted initially to isolated pockets within an endemic area, or to the boundaries of a parasite’s range, where the life cycle may be more easily disrupted and where the prospect of reintroduction is limited, epidemiological evidence suggests that local elimination can be achieved. The role of animal reservoir hosts can be a critical factor for the prospects of elimination of some diseases and reservoir hosts may severely limit the chances of success.

In some cases, as with dracunculiasis, global eradication is the goal, that is the permanent certified reduction of incidence to zero globally. Dracunculiasis is now only endemic in 5 countries in Africa, transmission having been eliminated from Asia. Most importantly, there is a commitment from national health authorities in endemic countries to subscribe to World Health Assembly Resolutions for elimination of parasitic infections. This commitment, together with improved methods of vector and transmission control, wider availability of existing treatments, better health education, improved water quality and sanitation, increased knowledge of parasite and vector interactions, are all contributing to driving down prevalence and incidence of many parasitic infections and thus reducing disease morbidity and mortality.

In this Series, published in Parasites & Vectors, we aim to feature articles that highlight some of the important steps that need to be taken to eliminate both parasites and vectors in different regions of the world, and by bringing together these important contributions, we hope to illustrate how much can be achieved in reducing the burden of parasitic diseases.

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Edited by Professor David Rollinson

Collection published: 10 February 2011

View all collections published in Parasites & Vectors


  1. Haemaphysalis longicornis is an obligate hematophagous ectoparasite that transmits a variety of pathogens causing life-threatening diseases in humans and animals. Paramyosin (Pmy) is not only an invertebrate-spec...

    Authors: Pin-Xing Wu, Xue-Jiao Cui, Mi-Xue Cao, Li-Hong Lv, Hong-Meng Dong, Shu-Wen Xiao, Jing-Ze Liu and Yong-Hong Hu
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2021 14:309
  2. Transmission-blocking vaccine (TBV) is a promising strategy for malaria elimination. It is hypothesized that mixing or fusing two antigens targeting different stages of sexual development may provide higher tr...

    Authors: Fan Yang, Fei Liu, Xinxin Yu, Wenqi Zheng, Yudi Wu, Yue Qiu, Ying Jin, Liwang Cui and Yaming Cao
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2021 14:241
  3. Myanmar commenced a lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination programme in 2000. Whilst the country has made considerable progress since then, a number of districts have demonstrated persistent transmission after ...

    Authors: Benjamin F. R. Dickson, Patricia M. Graves, Ni Ni Aye, Thet Wai Nwe, Tint Wai, San San Win, Myint Shwe, Janet Douglass, Peter Wood, Kinley Wangdi and William J. McBride
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2021 14:72
  4. Malaria still has a devastating impact on public health and welfare in Cameroon. Despite the increasing number of studies conducted on disease prevalence, transmission patterns or treatment, there are to date,...

    Authors: Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio, Cyrille Ndo, Flobert Njiokou, Jude D. Bigoga, Parfait Awono-Ambene, Josiane Etang, Albert Same Ekobo and Charles S. Wondji
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2019 12:501
  5. Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is still a public health burden in many developing countries. In Benin, a West African country, at least 6.6 million people are at risk for LF. With the goal of eliminating LF by 2020...

    Authors: Pelagie M. Boko-Collins, Aurore Ogouyemi-Hounto, Elvire G. Adjinacou-Badou, Laurinda Gbaguidi-Saizonou, Nissou Ines Dossa, Aboudou Dare, Moudachirou Ibikounle, Kathryn L. Zoerhoff, Daniel A. Cohn and Wilfrid Batcho
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2019 12:276
  6. The global burden of onchocerciasis is the heaviest in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies have shown the importance of the role of Community-Directed Distributors (CDDs) and nurses in onchocerciasis control, but litt...

    Authors: Fanny Nadia Dissak-Delon, Guy-Roger Kamga, Perrine Claire Humblet, Annie Robert, Jacob Souopgui, Joseph Kamgno, Stephen Mbigha Ghogomu and Isabelle Godin
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2019 12:246
  7. The global strategy for elimination of lymphatic filariasis is by annual mass drug administration (MDA). Effective implementation of this strategy in endemic areas reduces Wuchereria bancrofti in the blood of inf...

    Authors: Sellase Pi-Bansa, Joseph Harold Nyarko Osei, Joannitta Joannides, Maame Esi Woode, David Agyemang, Elizabeth Elhassan, Samuel Kweku Dadzie, Maxwell Alexander Appawu, Michael David Wilson, Benjamin Guibehi Koudou, Dziedzom Komi de Souza, Jürg Utzinger and Daniel Adjei Boakye
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:672
  8. Decisions on when vector control can be withdrawn after malaria is eliminated depend on the receptivity or potential of an area to support vector populations. To guide malaria control and elimination programme...

    Authors: Thomas R. Burkot, Hugo Bugoro, Allan Apairamo, Robert D. Cooper, Diego F. Echeverry, Danyal Odabasi, Nigel W. Beebe, Victoria Makuru, Honglin Xiao, Jenna R. Davidson, Nicholas A. Deason, Hedrick Reuben, James W. Kazura, Frank H. Collins, Neil F. Lobo and Tanya L. Russell
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:606
  9. Control of lymphatic filariasis (LF) in most of the sub-Saharan African countries is based on annual mass drug administration (MDA) using a combination of ivermectin and albendazole. Monitoring the impact of t...

    Authors: Clarer Jones, Billy Ngasala, Yahya A. Derua, Donath Tarimo, Lisa Reimer, Moses Bockarie and Mwelecele N. Malecela
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:588
  10. Tengchong County was one of the counties located at the China-Myanmar border with high malaria incidence in the previous decades. As the pilot county for malaria elimination at the border area, Tengchong Count...

    Authors: Shao-sen Zhang, Shui-sen Zhou, Zheng-bin Zhou, Tian-mu Chen, Xue-zhong Wang, Wen-qi Shi, Wei-kang Jiang, Ju-lin Li, Xiao-nong Zhou, Roger Frutos, Sylvie Manguin and Aneta Afelt
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:511
  11. A baseline survey in 2007–2008 found lymphatic filariasis (LF) to be endemic in Sierra Leone in all 14 districts and co-endemic with onchocerciasis in 12 districts. Mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermect...

    Authors: Joseph B. Koroma, Santigie Sesay, Abdul Conteh, Jusufu Paye, Mohamed Bah, Mustapha Sonnie, Mary H. Hodges and Yaobi Zhang
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:334
  12. Mosquitoes that feed on animals can survive and mediate residual transmission of malaria even after most humans have been protected with insecticidal bednets or indoor residual sprays. Ivermectin is a widely-u...

    Authors: Carlos J. Chaccour, Kija Ngha’bi, Gloria Abizanda, Angel Irigoyen Barrio, Azucena Aldaz, Fredros Okumu, Hannah Slater, Jose Luis Del Pozo and Gerry Killeen
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:287
  13. The Esmeraldas focus of onchocerciasis in Ecuador expanded geographically during the 1980s and was associated with severe ocular and skin disease. Mass drug administration (MDA) with ivermectin started in 1991...

    Authors: Ángel Guevara, Raquel Lovato, Roberto Proaño, Mario A. Rodriguez-Perez, Thomas Unnasch, Philip J. Cooper and Ronald H. Guderian
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:265
  14. Togo is a country previously endemic for lymphatic filariasis (LF). In 2010, following nine years of mass drug administration (MDA) for LF, the country established a post-treatment surveillance (PTS) system. W...

    Authors: Monique Ameyo Dorkenoo, Rachel Bronzan, Degninou Yehadji, Mawèke Tchalim, Kossi Yakpa, Santrao Etassoli, Poukpessi Adjeloh, Issaka Maman and Yao Sodahlon
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:244
  15. Onchocerciasis is a chronic parasitic infection originally endemic in 13 discrete regional foci distributed among six countries of Latin America (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico and Venezuela). In...

    Authors: Rubén Santiago Nicholls, Sofía Duque, Luz Adriana Olaya, Myriam Consuelo López, Sol Beatriz Sánchez, Alba Lucía Morales and Gloria Inés Palma
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:237
  16. In 2000, the World Health Organization established the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF), with the goal of eliminating the disease as a public health problem by 2020. Since the start o...

    Authors: Lukyn M. Gedge, Alison A. Bettis, Mark H. Bradley, T. Déirdre Hollingsworth and Hugo C. Turner
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2018 11:75
  17. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been targeted by the WHO for elimination as a public health problem (< 1 case/10,000 people/year) in the Indian sub-continent (ISC) by 2020. Bihar State in India, which accounts...

    Authors: Sarah Jervis, Lloyd A. C. Chapman, Shweta Dwivedi, Morchan Karthick, Aritra Das, Epke A. Le Rutte, Orin Courtenay, Graham F. Medley, Indranath Banerjee, Tanmay Mahapatra, Indrajit Chaudhuri, Sridhar Srikantiah and T. Déirdre Hollingsworth
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:601
  18. Indoor residual spraying of insecticide (IRS) is a key intervention for reducing the burden of malaria infection. Effectiveness and success of this strategy are to a considerable extent dependent on knowledge ...

    Authors: Abdoulhossain Madani, Moussa Soleimani-Ahmadi, Sayed Hossein Davoodi, Alireza Sanei-Dehkordi, Seyed Aghil Jaberhashemi, Mehdi Zare and Teamur Aghamolaei
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:600
  19. After more than a decade of community-directed treatment with ivermectin (CDTI) in the West Region of Cameroon, epidemiological evaluation conducted in 2011 showed that onchocerciasis endemicity was still high...

    Authors: Guy-Roger Kamga, Fanny N. Dissak-Delon, Hugues C. Nana-Djeunga, Benjamin D. Biholong, Stephen Mbigha Ghogomu, Jacob Souopgui, Joseph Kamgno and Annie Robert
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:373
  20. Seroepidemiology can provide evidence for temporal changes in malaria transmission and is an important tool to evaluate the effectiveness of control interventions. During the early 2000s, Vanuatu experienced a...

    Authors: Zulkarnain Md Idris, Chim W. Chan, Mubasher Mohammed, Morris Kalkoa, George Taleo, Klara Junker, Bruno Arcà, Chris Drakeley and Akira Kaneko
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:204
  21. Loiasis is a filarial disease caused Loa loa. The main vectors are Chrysops silacea and C. dimidiata which are confined to the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa. Loiasis is a mild disease, but indiv...

    Authors: Louise Kelly-Hope, Rossely Paulo, Brent Thomas, Miguel Brito, Thomas R. Unnasch and David Molyneux
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:172
  22. Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a debilitating disease associated with extensive disfigurement and is one of a diverse group of diseases referred to as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) which mainly occur among ...

    Authors: Sammy M. Njenga, Henry M. Kanyi, Faith M. Mutungi, Collins Okoyo, Hadley S. Matendechero, Rachel L. Pullan, Katherine E. Halliday, Simon J. Brooker, C. Njeri Wamae, Joyce K. Onsongo and Kimberly Y. Won
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2017 10:99
  23. Botswana significantly reduced its malaria burden between 2000 and 2012. Incidence dropped from 0.99 to 0.01 % and deaths attributed to malaria declined from 12 to 3. The country initiated elimination strategi...

    Authors: Simon Chihanga, Ubydul Haque, Emmanuel Chanda, Tjantilili Mosweunyane, Kense Moakofhi, Haruna Baba Jibril, Mpho Motlaleng, Wenyi Zhang and Gregory E. Glass
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2016 9:99
  24. African trypanosomiases are infectious diseases caused by trypanosomes. African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) remains an important threat for livestock production in some affected areas whereas human African tr...

    Authors: Gustave Simo and Jean Baptiste Rayaisse
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:640
  25. The last decade has seen an expansion of national schistosomiasis control programmes in Africa based on large-scale preventative chemotherapy. In many areas this has resulted in considerable reductions in infe...

    Authors: Michael D. French, Thomas S. Churcher, Joanne P. Webster, Fiona M. Fleming, Alan Fenwick, Narcis B. Kabatereine, Moussa Sacko, Amadou Garba, Seydou Toure, Ursuline Nyandindi, James Mwansa, Lynsey Blair, Elisa Bosqué-Oliva and Maria-Gloria Basáñez
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:558
  26. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set ambitious targets for the elimination of onchocerciasis by 2020–2025 through mass ivermectin treatment. Two different mathematical models have assessed the feasibili...

    Authors: Wilma A. Stolk, Martin Walker, Luc E. Coffeng, María-Gloria Basáñez and Sake J. de Vlas
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:552
  27. Every year more than 200,000 new leprosy cases are registered globally. This number has been fairly stable over the past 8 years. WHO has set a target to interrupt the transmission of leprosy globally by 2020....

    Authors: David J. Blok, Sake J. De Vlas and Jan Hendrik Richardus
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:548
  28. The virulent vector-borne disease, Gambian human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), is one of several diseases targeted for elimination by the World Health Organization. This article utilises human case data from ...

    Authors: Kat S. Rock, Steve J. Torr, Crispin Lumbala and Matt J. Keeling
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:532
  29. Effective control of schistosomiasis remains a challenging problem for endemic areas of the world. Given knowledge of the biology of transmission and past experience with mass drug administration (MDA) program...

    Authors: David Gurarie, Nara Yoon, Emily Li, Martial Ndeffo-Mbah, David Durham, Anna E. Phillips, H. Osvaldo Aurelio, Josefo Ferro, Alison P. Galvani and Charles H. King
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:529
  30. Mathematical models of parasite transmission can help integrate a large body of information into a consistent framework, which can then be used for gaining mechanistic insights and making predictions. However,...

    Authors: Brajendra K. Singh and Edwin Michael
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:522
  31. Spurred by success in several foci, onchocerciasis control policy in Africa has shifted from morbidity control to elimination of infection. Clinical trials have demonstrated that moxidectin is substantially mo...

    Authors: Hugo C Turner, Martin Walker, Simon K Attah, Nicholas O Opoku, Kwablah Awadzi, Annette C Kuesel and María-Gloria Basáñez
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:167
  32. Larval source management strategies can play an important role in malaria elimination programmes, especially for tackling outdoor biting species and for eliminating parasite and vector populations when they ar...

    Authors: Andrew Hardy, Zawadi Mageni, Stefan Dongus, Gerry Killeen, Mark G Macklin, Silas Majambare, Abdullah Ali, Mwinyi Msellem, Abdul-Wahiyd Al-Mafazy, Mark Smith and Chris Thomas
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2015 8:41
  33. This is the first study in Morocco to estimate snail infection rates at the last historic transmission sites of schistosomiasis, known to be free from new infection among humans since 2004. Screening of large ...

    Authors: Fatima Amarir, Faiza Sebti, Ibrahim Abbasi, Abderrahim Sadak, Hajiba Fellah, Haddou Nhammi, Btissam Ameur, Abderrahman Laamrani El Idrissi and Mohamed Rhajaoui
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2014 7:288
  34. Schistosoma mansoni was moderately-highly endemic in the northeast of Sierra Leone. The national neglected tropical disease control program started mass drug administration (MDA) with praziquantel (PZQ) in six di...

    Authors: Santigie Sesay, Jusufu Paye, Mohamed S Bah, Florence Max McCarthy, Abdulai Conteh, Mustapha Sonnie, Mary H Hodges and Yaobi Zhang
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2014 7:14
  35. Onchocerciasis is caused by Onchocerca volvulus and transmitted by Simulium species (black flies). In the Americas, the infection has been previously described in 13 discrete regional foci distributed among six c...

    Authors: Jacinto Convit, Harland Schuler, Rafael Borges, Vimerca Olivero, Alfredo Domínguez-Vázquez, Hortencia Frontado and María E Grillet
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2013 6:289
  36. Lymphatic filariasis (LF) due to Wuchereria bancrofti is being eliminated from Oceania under the Pacific Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis Programme. LF was endemic in Solomon Islands but in the 2010-2020 Strat...

    Authors: Humpress Harrington, James Asugeni, Christopher Jimuru, John Gwalaa, Elmer Ribeyro, Richard Bradbury, Hayley Joseph, Wayne Melrose, David MacLaren and Rick Speare
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2013 6:218
  37. Malaria vectors which predominantly feed indoors upon humans have been locally eliminated from several settings with insecticide treated nets (ITNs), indoor residual spraying or larval source management. Recen...

    Authors: Gerry F Killeen, Aklilu Seyoum, Chadwick Sikaala, Amri S Zomboko, John E Gimnig, Nicodem J Govella and Michael T White
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2013 6:172
  38. Long-lasting insecticide treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual house spraying (IRS) are the main interventions for the control of malaria vectors in Zanzibar. The aim of the present study was to assess the ...

    Authors: Khamis A Haji, Bakari O Khatib, Stephen Smith, Abdullah S Ali, Gregor J Devine, Maureen Coetzee and Silas Majambere
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2013 6:82
  39. Since the World Health Assembly’s (Resolution WHA 50.29, 1997) call for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis by the year 2020, most of the endemic countries identified have established programmes to meet th...

    Authors: Gilberto Fontes, Anderson Brandão Leite, Ana Rachel Vasconcelos de Lima, Helen Freitas, John Patrick Ehrenberg and Eliana Maria Mauricio da Rocha
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2012 5:272
  40. Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) is targeted for elimination by the Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF). The strategy adopted is based on the density dependent phenomenon of Facilitat...

    Authors: Dziedzom K de Souza, Benjamin Koudou, Louise A Kelly-Hope, Michael D Wilson, Moses J Bockarie and Daniel A Boakye
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2012 5:259
  41. Malaria is endemic with year-round transmission on Bioko Island. The Bioko Island Malaria Control Project (BIMCP) started in 2004 with the aim to reduce malaria transmission and to ultimately eliminate malaria...

    Authors: Hans J Overgaard, Vamsi P Reddy, Simon Abaga, Abrahan Matias, Michael R Reddy, Vani Kulkarni, Christopher Schwabe, Luis Segura, Immo Kleinschmidt and Michel A Slotman
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2012 5:253
  42. Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a group of chronic parasitic diseases and related conditions that are the most common diseases among the 2·7 billion people globally living on less than US$2 per day. In ...

    Authors: Kebede Deribe, Kadu Meribo, Teshome Gebre, Asrat Hailu, Ahmed Ali, Abraham Aseffa and Gail Davey
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2012 5:240
  43. Rhodnius prolixus is one of the main vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, causative agent of Chagas disease. In Central America, it was first discovered in 1915 in El Salvador, from where it spread northwest to Guatemal...

    Authors: Ken Hashimoto and Christopher J Schofield
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2012 5:45
  44. The tsetse fly Glossina palpalis gambiensis is the main vector of sleeping sickness (Human African Trypanosomiasis - HAT) in West Africa, in particular in littoral Guinea where this disease is currently very acti...

    Authors: Moise S Kagbadouno, Mamadou Camara, Jérémy Bouyer, Fabrice Courtin, Mory F Onikoyamou, Chris J Schofield and Philippe Solano
    Citation: Parasites & Vectors 2011 4:18