Published literature to date suggests many commercially available antibodies raised against peptides derived from human LRRK2 sequence detect a protein of approximately 280 kDa in size in mouse or human tissue and/or cell lines 2122232425262728. To confirm whether these antibodies detect mouse LRRK2 or cross-reactive protein species unrelated to LRRK2 migrating near 280 kDa, we performed immunoblot analyses of the various antibodies in wild type mice and LRRK2 knock-out mice in which exons 39 and 40 are disrupted (S. Biskup, M. Sasaski, V.L. Dawson and T.M. Dawson, personal observation) (Figure 1). Our previously characterized antibody JH5514 recognizes human over-expressed and endogenous LRRK2 protein in mouse and humans with minimal cross-reactivity with other protein species and LRRK2 immunoreactivity is absent in LRRK2 KO mice (Figure 1A). No endogenous LRRK2 can be detected in HEK-293T cells even with long exposures and high antibody concentrations (Figure 1A and data not shown). Our validated antibody JH5514 does not detect a protein of the appropriate size, determined through alignment with recombinant LRRK2 protein, in any tested cell line lysate including human embryonic kidney (HEK-293T) cells, human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells, human neuroblastoma (BE(2)-M17) cells and rat adrenal (PC-12) cells (data not shown). Several of these cell lines, including HEK-293T and SH-SY5Y express a low level of LRRK2 mRNA compared with brain tissue suggesting post-transcriptional regulation (data not shown).

With a series of different extraction buffers for mouse brain using LRRK2-null brain tissue as a control, we show that membrane disruption through simple mechanical homogenization of brain tissue in PBS (low salt buffer) or in high salt buffer is sufficient to extract the majority of mouse LRRK2 that can be detected by Western Blot (Figure 1A). Mouse LRRK2 protein is also detected in relatively insoluble fractions only resolved through the addition of 1% SDS buffer. Incubation of lysate samples supplemented with 1× Laemmli sample buffer for ten minutes at temperatures above room temperature led to a loss of recoverable levels of LRRK2 (Figure 1B). This phenomenon is apparently not due to an interaction with plastic disposables since siliconized tubes and tips had no effect. Supplementation of the sample buffer lysate solution with either 4 M urea or 5% Formic acid (FA) after incubation for ten minutes at 90°C resulted in a significant recovery of LRRK2 protein levels, suggesting that LRRK2 may form SDS-resistant insoluble aggregates with elevated temperatures (Figure 1B).

Using a panel of over-expressed mouse LRRK2 (mLRRK2) versus empty vector transfected HEK-293T cells in combination with LRRK2-null versus wild-type mouse brain tissue, we tested twenty-one commercially available LRRK2 antibodies to determine specificity. Most of the antibodies cannot detect over-expressed mLRRK2 or endogenous wild-type mLRRK2 protein (For a summary, see Table 1). For example, the antibodies Novus 267, Novus 268, Abgent AP7099b do not have the sufficient specificity to detect mLRRK2, either over-expressed or endogenous using standard blotting conditions (Figure 1C). Of note, antibody AP7099b from Abgent was raised against a peptide identical between mouse and human. Typical for the majority of antibodies tested here, cross-reactive species near the molecular weight of LRRK2 protein confound the interpretation of blots when appropriate controls such as LRRK2-null brain lysate are not included. With very high concentrations and exposure times, many cross reactive bands appear near the expected size of LRRK2 protein but none are changed in the LRRK2-null brain lysate for all commercially available antibodies with the exception of the Alexis (AT106) antibody, which recognizes a faint band immediately under a prominent cross-reactive protein species near 280 kDa (Figure 1C). Other antibodies capable of detecting over-expressed mLRRK2 in HEK 293T cells such as the Cell Signaling (2567) and Chemicon (ab9682) antibodies recognize cross-reactive protein species that presumably mask endogenous mLRRK2 protein due to the insufficient separation afforded by commercially available gradient mini-gels.

All antibodies were additionally tested on human over-expressed LRRK2 versus empty vector transfected HEK-293T cells (Table 1). Figure 2A shows the panel of antibodies capable of detecting over-expressed human LRRK2 (Novus 267, Novus 268, Abgent AP7099e, AP7099f, AP7099g, AP7099h, Abcam 27482 and Cell Signaling 2567). We tested antibodies capable of robustly detecting over-expressed human LRRK2 protein (Novus 267, Novus 268, Abgent AP7099e, AP7099f, AP7099g, AP7099h, Abcam 27482) using human brain lysate derived from fresh-frozen samples of human temporal lobe. In situ hybridization analyses have previously demonstrated LRRK2 mRNA is at the highest levels in the cortex and striatum and we would expect significant quantities of LRRK2 protein in the temporal lobe 161829303132. Novus 267, Novus 268 and AP7099e all have sufficient specificity to detect human LRRK2 based on their ability to resolve a band of the predicted molecular weight of LRRK2 with identical solubility profiles (Figure 2B). Novus 268 and AP7099e are shown in comparison with our in-house antibody JH5514 (Figure 2B). Using gel systems other than Tris-Glycine such as Tris-Acetate or Bis-Tris gels causes a dramatically different migration of LRRK2 protein with respect to protein markers, with migration near 240 kDa in Tris-Acetate gels (data not shown).

We visualized LRRK2 protein by Western blot in human brain lysates derived from tissue with minimal delay in processing (fresh frozen brain samples) and have been unsuccessful in detecting LRRK2 protein from the vast majority of archived frozen brain samples that correspond to typical post-mortem delays (4–24 hours) (data not shown). This may be due to a high rate of degradation or processes that otherwise render LRRK2 inaccessible to detection by immunoblotting due to typical post-mortem delay in most human tissue samples available. We have not observed significant decay in LRRK2 protein within protein lysate when stored at -20 or -80 degrees or dramatic loss of LRRK2 due to freeze/thaw cycles (data not shown).

Many invertebrate organisms such as Drosophila and lower vertebrate organisms such as Fugu and Zebrafish possess only a single LRRK gene, suggesting mammalian LRRK1 and LRRK2 protein diverged from a single founder 33. LRRK-like proteins and orthologues extend well beyond complex invertebrates into even simple single-celled eukaryotic organisms 34, suggesting a fundamental albeit unknown role for the LRRK family of proteins in mammals. Northern blot analysis has previously shown a broad distribution of LRRK2 mRNA in the brain and other organs in humans 12. In order to better understand the regulation of LRRK2 expression we measured LRRK1 and LRRK2 mRNA in multiple organs in neonatal and adult mice (Figure 3A, B). We observed statistically identical levels of LRRK1 and LRRK2 mRNA in the lung, heart, skeletal muscle and lymph node (Figure 3B). LRRK2 mRNA is more abundant in kidney and brain tissue, whereas LRRK1 mRNA is more abundant in the gut.

Using Northern (whole mouse embryo) and Western (whole brain lysate) blotting we show that LRRK2 does not have an expression profile typical of a gene important during early development (Figure 4A,B). mRNA levels measured from whole mouse embryos show that LRRK2 expression increases from embryonic day 15 to day 17 (Figure 4A). Given the large increase in expression of LRRK2 during the latest stages of development, we created a panel of cDNA derived from developing mouse organs, including brain, lung, heart and liver, at various stages of development. We then went on to compare LRRK1 and LRRK2 levels using quantitative RT-PCR and observed a dynamic expression profile that distinguishes LRRK1 from LRRK2. LRRK2 most dramatically increases in lung and kidney between E15.5 and E19.5 partially accounting for the results of the whole-embryo Northern blot. Surprisingly, LRRK2 mRNA is constitutively expressed early in development of the brain and does not substantially increase upon cell maturation as might be expected by the Northern blot of whole embryo (Figure 4C). LRRK1 levels spike at E15.5 in the brain then decrease below LRRK2 levels and remain low with respect to LRRK2 throughout adulthood. In other organs such as the lung and liver, LRRK2 dramatically increases in the latest stages of development in contrast to the more constitutive expression in the heart where LRRK1 and LRRK2 are nearly identically expressed both in development and throughout adulthood.

Affinity-purified rabbit polyclonal antibodies were generated to LRRK2 protein as described previously 17. Protein extracts from adult mouse and fresh frozen tissue samples from the human temporal lobe were prepared as described 17 and Western blot analysis (6% SDS-PAGE gels) was conducted as previously described for LRRK2 19. Human tissue samples were obtained from human brain temporal lobe resections snap-frozen immediately after removal and stored at -80°C until homogenization. Briefly: whole mouse brain or temporal human brain was mechanically homogenized in either PBS (low salt buffer), high salt buffer (PBS supplemented to 600 mM NaCl), 1% Triton X-100 (in PBS), 1% SDS (in PBS) or RIPA (1% SDS, 1% sodium deoxycholate, 1% NP-40). All buffers contained complete protease inhibitors (Roche). Antibodies were diluted 1:1000 in TBS-T containing 5% skimmed milk if not otherwise indicated. Incubation with primary antibodies was performed overnight. LRRK2 knockout mice were generated by disruption of exons 39 and 40 of the mouse LRRK2 gene (S. Biskup, M. Sasaki, V.L. Dawson and T.M. Dawson, personal observation). Wild-type, heterozygote and knockout LRRK2 mice were generated by crossbreeding of germline chimaeras to C57BL/6J mice. Protein extracts from mouse and fresh frozen tissue samples from the human temporal lobe were processed for Western blotting with LRRK2 antibodies as described above. LRRK2 antibodies were obtained from Abgent, Novus Biologicals, Abcam, Chemicon, Alexis and Cell Signaling.

The generation of human LRRK2 constructs has been previously described 1935.

The full-length cDNA of mouse LRRK2 was amplified from a Marathon-Ready mouse embryo 17d cDNA library (BD Biosciences). Using nested primers based on mouse LRRK2 (GenBank accession number NM_025730) and PfuTurbo hotstart DNA polymerase (Stratagene) according to the manufacturer's protocol, two overlapping fragments from exons 1–28 (~3.9 kb) and exons 15–51 (~5.9 kb) were generated. The first part of the LRRK2 cDNA (exons 1–28) was cloned in pBluescript SK+ (Stratagene) (KpnI/NotI) and sequenced with an ABI Prism Big Dye Terminator cycle sequencing kit on an ABI Prism 3730 DNA analyzer (Applied Biosystems). To generate a full-length LRRK2 clone the second part of LRRK2 (exons 15–51) was cloned in the pBluescript plasmid already containing one part of LRRK2 (NdeI/NotI). The entire open reading frame of LRRK2 (7584 bp) was confirmed by sequencing.

Whole mouse embryonic membranes were purchased from Clontech. Membranes were hybridized overnight at 65°C with a biotinylated antisense riboprobe synthesized using the MAXIscript in vitro transcription kit (Ambion) from a PCR-amplified DNA template with incorporated T7 promoter, and washed with 2 × SSC/1% SDS and then 0.1 × SSC/0.1% SDS at 65°C. Filters were visualized by incubation with streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase and chemiluminescence using the BrightStar BioDetect kit (Ambion). The riboprobe sequence for LRRK2 corresponds to nucleotide positions 4292 to 4813 of LRRK2 cDNA. PCR primers used were: forward 5'-TGAAGCCTTGGCTCTTCAAT-3' and reverse 5'-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGTACAAAGCCACTTGGGTTCC-3' with bold nucleotides representing the T7 promoter priming site.

RNA was isolated from embryonic and adult CD-1 mice (Charles Rivers) via mechanical homogenization and extraction in TriZOL and both cleaned and concentrated using a commercially available kit (Qiagen RNEasy Micro; Qiagen). Reverse transcription was performed using the Applied Biosystems High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems); cDNA concentrations were determined with a Nanodrop spectrophotometer (Nanodrop Technologies) prior to PCR. cDNA samples underwent absolute quantitative real-time PCR on the 9700HT instrument (Applied Biosystems) under the default 40-cycle program. TaqMan gene expression assays were purchased from Applied Biosystems, including LRRK1 and LRRK2 expression assays (assay Mm0481934 and Mm00713303), TBP (assay Mm00446973_m1), cyclophilin A (Mm02342429_g1) and GAPDH (4352932E). For each amplicon, PCR efficiency was estimated near 1.0 by serial dilutions of cDNA. Relative quantities of mRNA were estimated using the delta delta CT method.