Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in industrialised countries. High blood pressure (BP) is one of the important causes of cardiovascular diseases and its role is set to continue 1. The risk of cardiovascular disease associated with high BP is consistent and independent of other risk factors 2. The high prevalence of hypertension is well reflected in the high prevalence of stroke and cardiovascular disease across the globe 3. In western societies, BP levels and prevalence of hypertension differ by ethnic group with most studies showing higher levels and rates in the ethnic minority groups than in the European populations 4567. The explanations for the higher BP levels and the higher prevalence of hypertension in ethnic minority populations still remain unclear 8.

As in most CVD epidemiology, investigations of high BP in ethnic groups have focused mainly on individual level characteristics such as obesity, education and genes 910. The environmental effect on BP and hypertension in different ethnic groups has hardly ever been examined. Evidence strongly suggests that the neighbourhood in which people live influences their health, either in addition to or in interaction with individual level characteristics 11. A systematic review of multilevel studies 12, for example, showed fairly consistent and modest neighbourhood effects on health despite the differences in study designs, neighbourhood measures and possible measurement errors. More recently, adverse neighbourhood factors have also shown to be positively associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) 1516 and insulin resistance syndrome 17.

There are also indications that the impact of the neighbourhood environment on ill health is greater in ethnic minority population groups than in European populations 1314. For example, Cubbin and colleagues' study showed a stronger neighborhood deprivation effect on cardiovascular risk factors in African Americans than in White Americans 14.

There are several mechanisms through which neighbourhood environment may be linked to the development of high BP, for example, through their influence on health related behaviours or through psychosocial pathways. Recent studies indicate a possible role of neighbourhood environments in influencing physical activity 18192021 and diet 1922, both of which may be related to high BP 23. It has been shown that neighbourhoods characterised by poor physical quality are associated with psychosocial stress 24. Social participation may also have direct effects on health outcomes by influencing a series of physiologic pathways or via social influence or supportive functions that influence health-promoting or health-damaging behaviors 25. Living in a stressful neighbourhood may discourage residents from taking up important lifestyle measures such as physical activity which, in turn, may lead to the development of high BP. It is also possible that the biological pathway between these neighbourhoods' factors and BP may be mediated by an abnormal neuroendocrine secretory pattern 26 due to stress. Neighbourhood stressors may vary between neighbourhoods, which may lead to differences in development of high BP.

Perception of environmental stressors may differ between different ethnic groups due to differences in culture, language, migration history and socio-economic positions 2327. Neighbourhood stressors may therefore provide important clues for explaining the higher BP levels and hypertension rates in ethnic minority populations since many of these populations live in disadvantaged neighbourhoods with high levels of stress. The main objective of this paper was to determine whether neighbourhood environmental stressors were associated with BP and hypertension in Dutch, Turkish and Moroccan ethnic groups in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Turkish and Moroccans are two of the largest ethnic minority groups in the Netherlands. They came to the Netherlands in the 1960s and early 1970s as labour migrants. The initial period of labour migration was followed by a period in which many guest workers brought their spouses and children over to the Netherlands. A large percentage of Turkish and Moroccan especially first generation immigrants have lower educational levels, poor Dutch language proficiency, and tend to stay within their own culture 28.

The data in this study were collected at two levels. The individual (first) level included information on demographics, body mass index (BMI), BP and hypertension. The contextual (second) level included information on environmental stressors. These two levels were linked by neighbourhood, creating a multilevel design for data analysis.

About 95 per cent of the Turkish and the Moroccan ethnic groups were first generation migrants. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the study population in each ethnic group. Turkish and Moroccan ethnic groups were younger, had lower education levels and higher BMI compared with their Dutch counterparts. Mean systolic and diastolic levels and prevalence of hypertension were lower in Turkish and Moroccans than in Dutch. These differences remained after adjustment for age and gender except for diastolic BP in Turkish people 34.

Little is known about the effects of neighbourhood-level environmental stressors on BP and hypertension in different ethnic groups in Europe. Our findings show that neighbourhood-level stressors are associated with BP in ethnic minority groups but were less evident in Dutch people living in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Some limitations within this study should be acknowledged. As in numerous epidemiological surveys our BP levels were based on two measurements at a single visit, which might have overestimated the BP levels and the prevalence of hypertension. A further limitation was the cross-sectional nature of the study design, which indicates that causal associations can only be made with caution. In addition, our contextual stress variables were based on the overall assessment of the Amsterdam general population. It is possible that the assessment of these contextual variables might vary between the ethnic groups, which might further affect our study conclusions. Other potential sources of bias could have resulted from the relatively low response rate. Nonetheless, the response rate of the survey is comparable to several national surveys in the Netherlands 2835, indicating that any systematic bias is unlikely. In addition, the number of people who did not receive their invitations because of incorrect residential address in the municipal registers is likely to be high due to the mobility of the population in Amsterdam. Therefore our actual response rate might be higher. Our contextual factors were based on only fifteen neighbourhoods and therefore relatively underpowered for multilevel modelling. Our contextual factors were dichotomised, which might reduce the power to detect associations. However, dichotomisation was necessary because of the structure of the data, since few neighbourhoods, and few people per neighbourhood, did not permit modelling of between neighbourhood variability in the outcomes. Nevertheless, the presence of multiple neighbourhoods did permit adequate estimation of the fixed effects of neighbourhood level variables (our main research question).

Evidence suggests that the health advantage of foreign-born people may be explained by the healthy migrant effect 36. Nearly 95 per cent of both Turkish and Moroccans studied were first generation immigrants. It is possible that the healthy migrant effect might have underestimated the observed associations in our study.

In addition, we were unable to assess factors such as internal migration within the study area, the degree of residential segregation, and multiple dimensions of socio-economic deprivation over the life course, which might also affect our study conclusions. For example, the impact of internal migration between neighbourhoods within Amsterdam is likely to lead to underestimation of the observed associations in our study. Nevertheless, evidence suggests a weak association between selective migration and health in the Netherlands 3738.

Despite these limitations, the study findings provide important information on the effect of environmental stressors on BP and hypertension among different ethnic groups. As far as we are aware, this is the first study that has assessed the effect of neighbourhood level stressors on BP and hypertension among ethnic minority groups. The neighbourhoods considered in our study were socio-culturally rather homogenous communities 39. It has been emphasised that contextual or area bound factors may have a greater impact on health if a neighbourhood relates to a socio-culturally homogeneous community 30.

Our findings of associations between neighbourhood crime, nuisance from alcohol and drug misuse and BP among the ethnic minority groups add to the existing literature documenting associations between neighbourhood factors and cardiovascular risk factors 1415161740. For example, a recent study from Sweden showed a positive association between neighbourhood crime and CHD risk even after controlling for the individual level factors 16. The associations between housing density, motor traffic, and BP are also consistent with recent reports 2441. For example, Galea and colleagues study found that living in a neighbourhood characterised by a poor quality built environment was associated with a greater likelihood of depression 24. Also, in Glasgow, Scotland, an introduction of a traffic calming scheme resulted in improvements in health and health related behaviours in a neighbourhood with a high level of motor traffic problems 41.

Although the evidence for the associations between neighbourhood environment and cardiovascular risk factors are mounting, the explanations for these associations still remain unclear. Two main interpretations have, however, been proposed for the relative bad health of people living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods: a neo-material perspective and a psychosocial perspective. According to the proponents of the neo-material theory, impaired health of residents of some neighbourhoods is the result of accumulation of exposure and experiences that have their roots in the material world 42. Under the proponents of psychosocial theory, stressors in the neighbourhood make residents feel unpleasant and this affects their behaviour (inappropriate coping strategies) and biology (psycho-neuro-endocrine mechanisms), which in turn, increase their susceptibility to diseases in addition to the direct effects of absolute material living standards 43.

Our findings support the psychosocial perspective and are consistent with other studies that have demonstrated associations between neighbourhood-level psychosocial factors and other health outcomes 434445. For example, it has been shown that a significant portion of health differentials across neighbourhoods is due to stress levels differences across neighbourhoods 45. It is possible that the biological pathway between these neighbourhoods' environment and BP may be mediated by an abnormal neuro-endocrine secretory pattern 26 due to stress, with the effect being greater in ethnic minority groups. It may also well be that ethnic minority people living in neighbourhoods with a high level of crime or nuisances from drug and alcohol misuse might feel more vulnerable or unsafe than their European counterparts to engage in important lifestyle measures that are important for hypertension prevention (such as walking).

The associations between housing density, motor traffic, and BP seem to suggest that living in neighbourhoods characterised by a poor quality built environment is associated with psychosocial stress which, in turn, may place one at greater risk for developing high BP. The reasons for the stronger associations between neighbourhood stressors and BP in the ethnic minority groups as compared with their Dutch counterparts are unclear. However, it is possible that the ethnic minority groups in this study live in more disadvantaged and stressful parts of the same neighbourhood or have less effective coping mechanisms than their Dutch counterparts, which might have contributed to the stronger associations observed in this study. These findings may also be a reflection of concentration of other deleterious elements of the neighbourhood environment that, through various mechanisms, shape BP. These findings may also reflect residential segregation, as well as differential exposure to other factors such as racism 46474849. Studies have shown that racism is positively associated with high BP in African Americans in the USA 46474849. Although information on racism and health is limited in the Netherlands, this possibility cannot be ruled out and it emphasises the need to explore how racism might contribute to ethnic inequalities in health 50.

In contrast, our findings show that living in a neighbourhood with a high quality of green space and social participation was associated with a lower systolic BP and lower odds of hypertension in the Moroccan group. Similar non-significant associations were also observed amongst the Dutch and Turkish ethnic groups. It is likely that the quality of neighbourhood built such as green space provides an opportunity for more outdoor recreation and encourage healthier lifestyles. Takano et al's study also found that living in a neighbourhood with greenery filled public areas positively influenced the longevity of urban senior citizens 51. It is widely recognised that good social relationships and affiliation have powerful effects on health, possibly through information exchange and establishment of health-related group norms 25. In Johnell et al's study, low social participation was associated with low adherence with antihypertensive therapy 52. Our study findings are in agreement with these previous reports.

Several neighbourhood stressors were strongly associated with BP among Turkish and Moroccan people as compared with Dutch people. This may reflect concentration of multiple stressors in disadvantaged neighbourhoods where many ethnic minority people live.

The findings of this study have important public health and clinical implications. It has been estimated that reducing the mean population BP level by even as little as 2–3 mmHg could have a major impact in reducing associated morbidity and mortality 38. For example, a 2 mmHg reduction of systolic BP at the population level would result in an 8% overall reduction in mortality due to stroke, a 5% reduction in mortality due to CHD, and a 4% decrease in all-cause mortality. A 5 mmHg reduction would result in 14% reduction for stroke, 9% for CHD, and a 7% for all-cause mortality 53. In this present study, the neighbourhood mean systolic BP was nearly 5 mmHg higher among Moroccan people living in neighbourhoods with high density housing and nuisance from drug misuse than their counterparts living in more advantaged neighbourhoods. The mean neighbourhood diastolic BP was also nearly 3 mmHg higher among Turkish living in high crime and motor traffic nuisance neighbourhoods than their counterparts in more advantaged neighbourhoods. Given the effect of these adverse neighbourhood stressors on BP, primary prevention measures targeting these factors may have a major impact in reducing high BP related morbidity and mortality especially among disadvantaged ethnic groups in many industrialised countries. These findings may also indicate that clinical assessment and management of BP might have to consider both individual level and neighbourhood level characteristics especially among ethnic minority patients.

The findings from this study show associations between neighbourhood stressors and BP among Turkish and Moroccan ethnic groups whereas no associations could be observed among the Dutch group. The findings might indicate that the higher BP levels found in some of the ethnic minority groups (such as African descent populations and Hindustanis Surinamese) in Europe and elsewhere may be partly due to their greater susceptibility to the adverse neighbourhood environment in which many minority people live. Primary prevention measures targeting these neighbourhood attributes may have an impact in reducing high BP related morbidity and mortality especially among ethnic groups.

The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.

All were responsible for study concept and design. JU and EL were responsible for data collection. CA, CH, WW, KS and MD were responsible for analysis and interpretation of data. CA drafted the manuscript and all were involved in critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.