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Clinical biomarkers

Collection published: 22 September 2011

Last updated: 8 February 2013

With the increasing sophistication of diagnostic processes and expanding knowledge about association between biomolecules, genomics and acute disease, interest in biomarkers is at an all time high. Although there are many research studies into validating and understanding the prognostic and diagnostic value of biomarkers, this remains a relatively young field in terms of actual translation to the clinic.

This thematic series covers recent advances in the clinical applications of biomarkers across a range of medically-relevant topics, demonstrating that biomarkers for acute illness are moving into the mainstream clinic but also highlighting the work that still lies ahead to make them more clinically useful.

		Research article The effects of apoptosis vulnerability markers on the myocardium in depression after myocardial infarction Yiming Wang, Xingde Liu, Dongfeng Zhang, Jianhui Chen, Shuzheng Liu, Michael Berk BMC Medicine 2013, 11:32 (8 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Pro-apoptotic pathways in the heart are upregulated in rats that have suffered post-myocardial infarction (MI) depression, and these pathophysiological processes may underlie the increased incidence of depression in patients following MI.
		Review The sweet and sour of serological glycoprotein tumor biomarker quantification Uros Kuzmanov, Hari Kosanam, Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2013, 11:31 (7 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary As there has been limited success in the development of glycoprotein tumor markers, Eleftherios Diamandis and colleagues review the challenges, and discuss how new technology will facilitate quantification of these biomarkers for clinical use.
		Review Depression pathogenesis and treatment: what can we learn from blood mRNA expression? Nilay Hepgul, Annamaria Cattaneo, Patricia A Zunszain, Carmine M Pariante BMC Medicine 2013, 11:28 (5 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Carmine Pariante and colleagues review the altered pattern of peripheral gene expression in patients with major depressive disorder, and comment on the clinical applicability of potential biomarkers to measure these reversible changes in patients.
		Research article Collectives of diagnostic biomarkers identify high-risk subpopulations of hematuria patients: exploiting heterogeneity in large-scale biomarker data Frank Emmert-Streib, Funso Abogunrin, Ricardo de Matos Simoes, Brian Duggan, Mark W Ruddock, Cherith N Reid, Owen Roddy, Lisa White, Hugh F O'Kane, Declan O'Rourke, Neil H Anderson, Thiagarajan Nambirajan, Kate E Williamson BMC Medicine 2013, 11:12 (17 January 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary High-risk hematuria patients can be identified by grouping together patients using hierarchical clustering based on biomarker data, which may allow more accurate and timely diagnosis during triage for patients with serious diseases.
		Research article Serum protein profiles predict coronary artery disease in symptomatic patients referred for coronary angiography William A LaFramboise, Rajiv Dhir, Lori A Kelly, Patricia Petrosko, John M Krill-Burger, Christin M Sciulli, Maureen A Lyons-Weiler, Uma R Chandran, Aleksey Lomakin, Robert V Masterson, Oscar C Marroquin, Suresh R Mulukutla, Dennis M McNamara BMC Medicine 2012, 10:157 (5 December 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Protein biomarkers discriminate between patients lacking significant coronary artery disease from those with the disease and requiring angiography, with long-term benefits including reduced patient exposure to ionization and lower healthcare costs.
		Opinion Preclinical Alzheimer disease: identification of cases at risk among cognitively intact older individuals Maciej J Lazarczyk, Patrick R Hof, Constantin Bouras, Panteleimon Giannakopoulos BMC Medicine 2012, 10:127 (25 October 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Giannakopoulos and colleagues review the latest advances in biomarker discovery for diagnosis of preclinical Alzheimer's disease (AD), but caution against an assumption of AD development, as some subjects who test positive for the biomarkers may never go on to develop AD-related dementia.
		Correspondence A tool to facilitate clinical biomarker studies - a tissue dictionary based on the Human Protein Atlas Caroline Kampf, Julia Bergman, Per Oksvold, Anna Asplund, Sanjay Navani, Mikaela Wiking, Emma Lundberg, Mathias Uhlén, Fredrik Ponten BMC Medicine 2012, 10:103 (12 September 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Fredrik Ponten and colleagues highlight how a tissue dictionary recently developed to accompany the Human Protein Atlas (HPA), can be used by clinicians for diagnostic and biomarker studies in cancer pathology.
		Research article Interleukin-22 predicts severity and death in advanced liver cirrhosis: a prospective cohort study Bernd Kronenberger, Ina Rudloff, Malte Bachmann, Friederike Brunner, Lisa Kapper, Natalie Filmann, Oliver Waidmann, Eva Herrmann, Josef Pfeilschifter, Stefan Zeuzem, Albrecht Piiper, Heiko Mühl BMC Medicine 2012, 10:102 (11 September 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Elevated interleukin-22 (IL-22) levels predict reduced survival in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis independently from age, C-reactive protein, disease severity and complications, suggesting that IL-22 could be used as a prognostic marker.
		Commentary The failure of protein cancer biomarkers to reach the clinic: why, and what can be done to address the problem? Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2012, 10:87 (9 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Despite the discovery of many biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, very few have been used within the clinical setting; Eleftherios Diamandis explains the reasons behind the incongruity, discussing potential solutions for this issue.
		Research article Physiologic variations of serum tumor markers in gynecological malignancies during pregnancy: a systematic review Sileny N Han, Anouk Lotgerink, Mina Gziri, Kristel Van Calsteren, Myriam Hanssens, Frédéric Amant BMC Medicine 2012, 10:86 (8 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Evidence from a systematic review suggests that gynecological tumor marker levels can increase during normal pregnancy, indicating that elevated markers alone should not lead to invasive diagnostic procedures that could put the fetus at risk.
		Research article CD133⁺CXCR4⁺colon cancer cells exhibit metastatic potential and predict poor prognosis of patients Shan-shan Zhang, Zhi-peng Han, Ying-ying Jing, Shuang-fen Tao, Tie-jun Li, Hao Wang, Yang Wang, Rong Li, Yang Yang, Xue Zhao, Xiao-dong Xu, En-da Yu, Yao-cheng Rui, Hou-jia Liu, Li Zhang, Li-xin Wei BMC Medicine 2012, 10:85 (7 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Colon cancer cells expressing CD133 and CXCR4 are associated with metastasis and reduced survival in patients, and blocking CXCR4 in a mouse model inhibits tumor growth, which suggests that these proteins could be targeted in colon cancer therapy.
		Research article Germinal center kinase-like kinase (GLK/MAP4K3) expression is increased in adult-onset Still's disease and may act as an activity marker Der-Yuan Chen, Huai-Chia Chuang, Joung-Liang Lan, Yi-Ming Chen, Wei-Ting Hung, Kuo-Lung Lai, Tse-Hua Tan BMC Medicine 2012, 10:84 (6 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Disease activity of adult-onset Still's disease, a rare form of inflammatory arthritis, can be measured by using levels of germinal center kinase-like kinase (GLK) as a biomarker for pathogenesis, which can be useful in establishing therapy efficacy.
		Correspondence Reporting recommendations for tumor marker prognostic studies (REMARK): explanation and elaboration Douglas G Altman, Lisa M McShane, Willi Sauerbrei, Sheila E Taube BMC Medicine 2012, 10:51 (29 May 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| 1 comment \| Editor’s summary Altman et al. address the lack of consistency and clarity in reporting of prognostic tumor markers by elaborating the Reporting Recommendations for Tumor Marker Prognostic Studies (REMARK) checklist, providing a useful resource for researchers.
		Technical advance Bioinformatic identification of proteins with tissue-specific expression for biomarker discovery Ioannis Prassas, Caitlin C Chrystoja, Shalini Makawita, Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2012, 10:39 (19 April 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary A novel bioinformatics strategy that mines publicly available databases identifies tissue-specific proteins that are candidates for cancer serum biomarkers, overcoming the limitations of current biomarkers, which lack tissue specificity.
		Minireview The role of copeptin as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for risk stratification in the emergency department Christian H Nickel, Roland Bingisser, Nils G Morgenthaler BMC Medicine 2012, 10:7 (20 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Morgenthaler and colleagues review the recent progress in determining the prognostic and diagnostic value of copeptin, which is released in response to stress, as a biomarker for risk stratification in the emergency department.
		Research article Systematic review and meta-analysis of the value of initial biomarkers in predicting adverse outcome in febrile neutropenic episodes in children and young people with cancer Robert S Phillips, Ros Wade, Thomas Lehrnbecher, Lesley A Stewart, Alex J Sutton BMC Medicine 2012, 10:6 (18 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis suggests inconclusive predictive value of serum biomarkers for pediatric febrile neutropenic episodes, but further studies for the roles of IL6, IL8 and procalcitonin should be conducted.
		Minireview suPAR as a prognostic biomarker in sepsis Katia Donadello, Sabino Scolletta, Cecilia Covajes, Jean-Louis Vincent BMC Medicine 2012, 10:2 (5 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Donadello and colleagues review the clinical utility of suPAR as a biomarker for sepsis, and discuss how it can be used to monitor response to treatment in critically ill patients.
		Commentary Peroxiredoxin 4: a multifunctional biomarker worthy of further exploration Janin Schulte BMC Medicine 2011, 9:137 (23 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary In our latest article in the Clinical Biomarkers series, Janin Schulte comments on the enzyme peroxiredoxin 4, an indicator of altered redox environment in acute and chronic infections, and highlights the multiple uses of this enzyme as a prognostic biomarker.
		Commentary Acute kidney injury biomarkers: renal angina and the need for a renal troponin I Stuart L Goldstein BMC Medicine 2011, 9:135 (21 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Novel biomarkers can be used for prognosis of acute kidney injury (AKI), and in our latest addition to the Clinical Biomarkers series, Stuart L Goldstein discusses the importance of such biomarkers in early detection of AKI.
		Research article Septin 9 methylated DNA is a sensitive and specific blood test for colorectal cancer Jorja D Warren, Wei Xiong, Ashley M Bunker, Cecily P Vaughn, Larissa V Furtado, William L Roberts, John C Fang, Wade S Samowitz, Karen A Heichman BMC Medicine 2011, 9:133 (14 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| 1 comment \| Editor’s summary The biomarker septin 9 methylated DNA, which can be detected in blood plasma, provides a promising diagnostic test for colorectal cancer (CRC) of all stages, and can be used to screen for CRC in patients unable to undergo colonoscopy.
		Opinion Biomarkers of acute lung injury: worth their salt? Alastair G Proudfoot, Matthew Hind, Mark JD Griffiths BMC Medicine 2011, 9:132 (12 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Griffiths and colleagues discuss the role of biomarkers in the management of acute lung injury, a life-threatening form of hypoxemic respiratory failure, and critically examine the current strategies used to identify biomarkers.
		Review Procalcitonin for diagnosis of infection and guide to antibiotic decisions: past, present and future Philipp Schuetz, Werner Albrich, Beat Mueller BMC Medicine 2011, 9:107 (22 September 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Mueller and colleagues kick off our new thematic series on Clinical Biomarkers with a review on the utility of procalcitonin in the diagnosis of bacterial infection and decisions about antibiotic treatment in different clinical settings.

		Research article The effects of apoptosis vulnerability markers on the myocardium in depression after myocardial infarction Yiming Wang, Xingde Liu, Dongfeng Zhang, Jianhui Chen, Shuzheng Liu, Michael Berk BMC Medicine 2013, 11:32 (8 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Pro-apoptotic pathways in the heart are upregulated in rats that have suffered post-myocardial infarction (MI) depression, and these pathophysiological processes may underlie the increased incidence of depression in patients following MI.
		Review The sweet and sour of serological glycoprotein tumor biomarker quantification Uros Kuzmanov, Hari Kosanam, Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2013, 11:31 (7 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary As there has been limited success in the development of glycoprotein tumor markers, Eleftherios Diamandis and colleagues review the challenges, and discuss how new technology will facilitate quantification of these biomarkers for clinical use.
		Review Depression pathogenesis and treatment: what can we learn from blood mRNA expression? Nilay Hepgul, Annamaria Cattaneo, Patricia A Zunszain, Carmine M Pariante BMC Medicine 2013, 11:28 (5 February 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Carmine Pariante and colleagues review the altered pattern of peripheral gene expression in patients with major depressive disorder, and comment on the clinical applicability of potential biomarkers to measure these reversible changes in patients.
		Research article Collectives of diagnostic biomarkers identify high-risk subpopulations of hematuria patients: exploiting heterogeneity in large-scale biomarker data Frank Emmert-Streib, Funso Abogunrin, Ricardo de Matos Simoes, Brian Duggan, Mark W Ruddock, Cherith N Reid, Owen Roddy, Lisa White, Hugh F O'Kane, Declan O'Rourke, Neil H Anderson, Thiagarajan Nambirajan, Kate E Williamson BMC Medicine 2013, 11:12 (17 January 2013) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary High-risk hematuria patients can be identified by grouping together patients using hierarchical clustering based on biomarker data, which may allow more accurate and timely diagnosis during triage for patients with serious diseases.
		Research article Serum protein profiles predict coronary artery disease in symptomatic patients referred for coronary angiography William A LaFramboise, Rajiv Dhir, Lori A Kelly, Patricia Petrosko, John M Krill-Burger, Christin M Sciulli, Maureen A Lyons-Weiler, Uma R Chandran, Aleksey Lomakin, Robert V Masterson, Oscar C Marroquin, Suresh R Mulukutla, Dennis M McNamara BMC Medicine 2012, 10:157 (5 December 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Protein biomarkers discriminate between patients lacking significant coronary artery disease from those with the disease and requiring angiography, with long-term benefits including reduced patient exposure to ionization and lower healthcare costs.
		Opinion Preclinical Alzheimer disease: identification of cases at risk among cognitively intact older individuals Maciej J Lazarczyk, Patrick R Hof, Constantin Bouras, Panteleimon Giannakopoulos BMC Medicine 2012, 10:127 (25 October 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Giannakopoulos and colleagues review the latest advances in biomarker discovery for diagnosis of preclinical Alzheimer's disease (AD), but caution against an assumption of AD development, as some subjects who test positive for the biomarkers may never go on to develop AD-related dementia.
		Correspondence A tool to facilitate clinical biomarker studies - a tissue dictionary based on the Human Protein Atlas Caroline Kampf, Julia Bergman, Per Oksvold, Anna Asplund, Sanjay Navani, Mikaela Wiking, Emma Lundberg, Mathias Uhlén, Fredrik Ponten BMC Medicine 2012, 10:103 (12 September 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Fredrik Ponten and colleagues highlight how a tissue dictionary recently developed to accompany the Human Protein Atlas (HPA), can be used by clinicians for diagnostic and biomarker studies in cancer pathology.
		Research article Interleukin-22 predicts severity and death in advanced liver cirrhosis: a prospective cohort study Bernd Kronenberger, Ina Rudloff, Malte Bachmann, Friederike Brunner, Lisa Kapper, Natalie Filmann, Oliver Waidmann, Eva Herrmann, Josef Pfeilschifter, Stefan Zeuzem, Albrecht Piiper, Heiko Mühl BMC Medicine 2012, 10:102 (11 September 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Elevated interleukin-22 (IL-22) levels predict reduced survival in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis independently from age, C-reactive protein, disease severity and complications, suggesting that IL-22 could be used as a prognostic marker.
		Commentary The failure of protein cancer biomarkers to reach the clinic: why, and what can be done to address the problem? Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2012, 10:87 (9 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Despite the discovery of many biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, very few have been used within the clinical setting; Eleftherios Diamandis explains the reasons behind the incongruity, discussing potential solutions for this issue.
		Research article Physiologic variations of serum tumor markers in gynecological malignancies during pregnancy: a systematic review Sileny N Han, Anouk Lotgerink, Mina Gziri, Kristel Van Calsteren, Myriam Hanssens, Frédéric Amant BMC Medicine 2012, 10:86 (8 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Evidence from a systematic review suggests that gynecological tumor marker levels can increase during normal pregnancy, indicating that elevated markers alone should not lead to invasive diagnostic procedures that could put the fetus at risk.
		Research article CD133⁺CXCR4⁺colon cancer cells exhibit metastatic potential and predict poor prognosis of patients Shan-shan Zhang, Zhi-peng Han, Ying-ying Jing, Shuang-fen Tao, Tie-jun Li, Hao Wang, Yang Wang, Rong Li, Yang Yang, Xue Zhao, Xiao-dong Xu, En-da Yu, Yao-cheng Rui, Hou-jia Liu, Li Zhang, Li-xin Wei BMC Medicine 2012, 10:85 (7 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Colon cancer cells expressing CD133 and CXCR4 are associated with metastasis and reduced survival in patients, and blocking CXCR4 in a mouse model inhibits tumor growth, which suggests that these proteins could be targeted in colon cancer therapy.
		Research article Germinal center kinase-like kinase (GLK/MAP4K3) expression is increased in adult-onset Still's disease and may act as an activity marker Der-Yuan Chen, Huai-Chia Chuang, Joung-Liang Lan, Yi-Ming Chen, Wei-Ting Hung, Kuo-Lung Lai, Tse-Hua Tan BMC Medicine 2012, 10:84 (6 August 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Disease activity of adult-onset Still's disease, a rare form of inflammatory arthritis, can be measured by using levels of germinal center kinase-like kinase (GLK) as a biomarker for pathogenesis, which can be useful in establishing therapy efficacy.
		Correspondence Reporting recommendations for tumor marker prognostic studies (REMARK): explanation and elaboration Douglas G Altman, Lisa M McShane, Willi Sauerbrei, Sheila E Taube BMC Medicine 2012, 10:51 (29 May 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| 1 comment \| Editor’s summary Altman et al. address the lack of consistency and clarity in reporting of prognostic tumor markers by elaborating the Reporting Recommendations for Tumor Marker Prognostic Studies (REMARK) checklist, providing a useful resource for researchers.
		Technical advance Bioinformatic identification of proteins with tissue-specific expression for biomarker discovery Ioannis Prassas, Caitlin C Chrystoja, Shalini Makawita, Eleftherios P Diamandis BMC Medicine 2012, 10:39 (19 April 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary A novel bioinformatics strategy that mines publicly available databases identifies tissue-specific proteins that are candidates for cancer serum biomarkers, overcoming the limitations of current biomarkers, which lack tissue specificity.
		Minireview The role of copeptin as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for risk stratification in the emergency department Christian H Nickel, Roland Bingisser, Nils G Morgenthaler BMC Medicine 2012, 10:7 (20 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Morgenthaler and colleagues review the recent progress in determining the prognostic and diagnostic value of copeptin, which is released in response to stress, as a biomarker for risk stratification in the emergency department.
		Research article Systematic review and meta-analysis of the value of initial biomarkers in predicting adverse outcome in febrile neutropenic episodes in children and young people with cancer Robert S Phillips, Ros Wade, Thomas Lehrnbecher, Lesley A Stewart, Alex J Sutton BMC Medicine 2012, 10:6 (18 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis suggests inconclusive predictive value of serum biomarkers for pediatric febrile neutropenic episodes, but further studies for the roles of IL6, IL8 and procalcitonin should be conducted.
		Minireview suPAR as a prognostic biomarker in sepsis Katia Donadello, Sabino Scolletta, Cecilia Covajes, Jean-Louis Vincent BMC Medicine 2012, 10:2 (5 January 2012) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Donadello and colleagues review the clinical utility of suPAR as a biomarker for sepsis, and discuss how it can be used to monitor response to treatment in critically ill patients.
		Commentary Peroxiredoxin 4: a multifunctional biomarker worthy of further exploration Janin Schulte BMC Medicine 2011, 9:137 (23 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary In our latest article in the Clinical Biomarkers series, Janin Schulte comments on the enzyme peroxiredoxin 4, an indicator of altered redox environment in acute and chronic infections, and highlights the multiple uses of this enzyme as a prognostic biomarker.
		Commentary Acute kidney injury biomarkers: renal angina and the need for a renal troponin I Stuart L Goldstein BMC Medicine 2011, 9:135 (21 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Novel biomarkers can be used for prognosis of acute kidney injury (AKI), and in our latest addition to the Clinical Biomarkers series, Stuart L Goldstein discusses the importance of such biomarkers in early detection of AKI.
		Research article Septin 9 methylated DNA is a sensitive and specific blood test for colorectal cancer Jorja D Warren, Wei Xiong, Ashley M Bunker, Cecily P Vaughn, Larissa V Furtado, William L Roberts, John C Fang, Wade S Samowitz, Karen A Heichman BMC Medicine 2011, 9:133 (14 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| 1 comment \| Editor’s summary The biomarker septin 9 methylated DNA, which can be detected in blood plasma, provides a promising diagnostic test for colorectal cancer (CRC) of all stages, and can be used to screen for CRC in patients unable to undergo colonoscopy.
		Opinion Biomarkers of acute lung injury: worth their salt? Alastair G Proudfoot, Matthew Hind, Mark JD Griffiths BMC Medicine 2011, 9:132 (12 December 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Editor’s summary Griffiths and colleagues discuss the role of biomarkers in the management of acute lung injury, a life-threatening form of hypoxemic respiratory failure, and critically examine the current strategies used to identify biomarkers.
		Review Procalcitonin for diagnosis of infection and guide to antibiotic decisions: past, present and future Philipp Schuetz, Werner Albrich, Beat Mueller BMC Medicine 2011, 9:107 (22 September 2011) Abstract \| Full text \| PDF \| PubMed \| Cited on BioMed Central \| Editor’s summary Mueller and colleagues kick off our new thematic series on Clinical Biomarkers with a review on the utility of procalcitonin in the diagnosis of bacterial infection and decisions about antibiotic treatment in different clinical settings.