Table 1

International Comparison of Tobacco Smoking Surveys Conducted among Physicians between 1974 and 2004
Publication Details			Smoking Rate^c			Study Details

Authors ^a	Year ^b	Country	All	Male	Female	Methodology	Sample Size	Response Rate ^d	Additional Findings

Smith et al [28]	2004	China	16%	32%	0%	Hand Delivered	286	79%	Physicians younger than 25 had the lowest smoking rate
Soto Mas et al [29]	2003	United States ^e	7%	-	-	Postal Survey	45	56%	No physicians reported being current cigarette smokers
Kenna & Wood [30]	2002	United States	4%	-	-	Postal Survey	104	63%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to dentists
Pärna et al [31,32]	2002	Estonia	-	25%	11%	Postal Survey	2668	68%	Twice as many males as females were ex-smokers
Hodgetts et al [33]	2002	Bosnia & Herzegovina	40%	-	-	Hand Delivered	112	73%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Gunes et al [34]	2002	Turkey	38%	-	-	Hand Delivered	257	85%	Around one-fifth of smokers were only occasional smokers
Nollen et al [35]	2002	Nigeria	3%	-	-	Hand Delivered	373	60%	Smoking rates in two different hospitals were the same
Misra & Vadaparampil [36]	2002	United States ^f	3%	-	-	Postal Survey	254	37%	The smoking status of a further 6% of physicians was not defined
Barengo et al [37]	2001	Finland	-	5%	3%	Postal Survey	3057	69%	Occasional smoking was more common among male physicians
Kannegaard et al [38]	2001	Denmark	15%	-	-	Postal Survey	729	75%	The physicians' smoking rate fell 4% between 1999 and 2001
Ahmadi et al [39]	2001*	Iran	9%	-	-	Hand Delivered	111	n/s^g	Residents had a higher smoking rate than attending physicians
Pizzo et al [40]	2000	Italy	28%	32%	20%	Telephone Survey	526	72%	Physician smoking rates differed by geographical region
Ohida et al [41]	2000	Japan	-	27%	7%	Postal Survey	3771	84%	Male physicians aged 40–49 had the highest smoking rate
An et al [42]	2000	United States	2%	-	-	Postal Survey	750	61%	A further 17% of physicians had ever smoked in the past
John & Hanke [43]	1999	Germany	18%	-	-	Census Data	1144	79%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
La Vecchia et al [44]	1999	Italy	24%	25%	23%	Interview	501	n/s	Physicians aged 41–50 had the highest smoking rate
Power et al [45]	1999	Ireland	16%	-	-	Telephone Survey	171	85%	Most physicians understood the dangers of smoking
Williang et al [46]	1999	Denmark	25%	-	-	Postal Survey	445	91%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
McEwan & West [47]	1999	United Kingdom	4%	-	-	Postal and Telephone	303	75%	Most physicians felt they should advise patients to quit
Nardini et al [48]	1998*	Italy	39%	-	-	Hand Delivered	959	57%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Josseran et al [49]	1998	France	32%	34%	25%	Telephone Survey	2073	67%	Physicians older than 40 had the highest smoking rate
Hepburn et al [50]	1997	United States	11%	-	-	Postal Survey	150	65%	More than half of the smokers used smokeless tobacco
Kawahara et al [51]	1997	Japan	26%	28%	5%	Postal Survey	709	91%	Physicians aged 40–49 years had the highest smoking rate
Samuels [52]	1996	Israel	16%	16%	15%	Interview	260	87%	The highest smoking rate was seen among radiologists
Zanetti et al [53]	1996	Italy	31%	29%	34%	Hand Delivered	2453	68%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Hay [54]	1996	New Zealand	5%	5%	5%	Census Data	7335	97%^h	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Li et al [55]	1996	China	45%	61%	12%	Hand Delivered	493	82%	Smoking rates have increased dramatically in recent years
Young & Ward [56]	1996	Australia	3%	4%	2%	Postal Survey	855	67%	Older physicians were more likely to be current smokers
Roche et al [57]	1996*	Australia	4%	-	-	Postal Survey	908	55%	A further 8% said they had previously smoked tobacco
Roche et al [58]	1995*	Australia	6%	6%	5%	Postal Survey	1365	55%	Trainee psychiatrists were more likely to be smokers
Barengo et al [59]	1995	Finland	-	7%	3%	Postal Survey	1221	76%	Male physicians older than 45 had the highest smoking rate
Nardini et al [60]	1995	Italy	25%	-	-	Conference Survey	605	62%	Physicians aged 40–50 years had the highest smoking rate
Hill & Braithwaite [61]	1994	United States ⁱ	4%	-	-	Postal Survey	121	32%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to dentists
Kawane & Soejima [62]	1994	Japan	29%	-	-	Hand Delivered	163	60%	Younger physicians had the highest smoking rates
Josseran et al [63]	1994	France	34%	36%	25%	Telephone Survey	1013	65%	Male physicians were also heavier smokers than female physicians
Kawakami et al [64]	1994	Japan	21%	24%	7%	Postal Survey	323	71%	Only 60% of smokers intended to reduce or quit their habit in future
Grossman et al [65]	1994	Costa Rica	19%	-	-	Hand Delivered	217	76%	88% of smokers intended to reduce or quit their habit in future
Frank et al [66–68]	1994	United States	-	-	4%	Postal Survey	4501	59%	Fewer family physicians smoked than physicians, generally
Tapia-Conyer et al [69]	1993	Mexico	27%	30%	21%	Postal Survey	3488	98%	Physicians aged 33–43 years had the highest smoking rate
Polyzos et al [70]	1992	Greece	49%	-	-	Hand Delivered	148	n/s	Surgeons had a higher smoking rate than internists
Heloma et al [71]	1992	Finland	10%	-	-	Postal Survey	725	72%	More physicians smoked when compared to nurses
De Koninck et al [72]	1992	Canada	-	13%	7%	Postal Survey	1540	51%	Over half of all male physicians had previously smoked
Bener et al [73]	1992	Arab Emirates	36%	44%	8%	Postal Survey	275	92%	Almost half the smokers were aged over 45 years
Tessier et al [74]	1991	France	21%	22%	14%	Postal Survey	4318	37%	Over half had made at least one attempt to quit smoking
Hussain et al [75]	1991	United Kingdom	5%	-	-	Postal Survey	1069	82%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Yaacob & Abdullah [76]	1991	Malaysia	18%	25%	0%	Postal and Hand Delivered	120	100%	Around half the smokers had begun before medical school
Doll et al [77]	1990	United Kingdom	-	18%	-	Postal Survey	10807	94%	A large proportion of smokers only smoked pipes and cigars
Kaetsu et al [78]	1990	Japan	32%	33%	5%	Postal Survey	3565	63%	Male physicians younger than 40 had the highest smoking rate
Jormanainen et al [79]	1990	Finland	-	10%	6%	Postal Survey	1231	76%	General practitioners had a higher smoking rate than specialists
Brink et al [80]	1990	United States	2%	-	-	Postal Survey	132	77%	Physicians smoked at similar rates when compared to dentists
Bener et al [73]	1990	Kuwait	38%	45%	16%	Postal Survey	252	84%	Over half the smokers were aged 35 to 44 years
Hensrud & Sprafka [81]	1990	United States	9%	10%	2%	Postal Survey	393	83%	Physicians aged 60–69 years had the highest smoking rate
Waalkens et al [82]	1989	The Netherlands	32%	37%	14%	Postal Survey	362	63%	More consultants smoked than house officers
Kawane [83–85]	1989	Japan	25%	26%	6%	Postal Survey	3640	59%	Chest physicians smoked at lower rates than physicians, generally
Dekker et al [86]	1989	Netherlands	38%	41%	24%	Postal Survey	263	82%	More general practitioners smoked than consultants
Hughes et al [87]	1989	United States	6%	-	-	Postal Survey	5426	59%	Older physicians were more likely to have ever smoked
Scott et al [88]	1988	United States	5%	5%	4%	Postal Survey	2341	86%	Physicians aged 55–64 years had the highest smoking rate
Fowler et al [89]	1988	United Kingdom	4%	-	-	Postal Survey	2176	75%	A further 11% of male physicians smoked pipes or cigars
Saeed [90]	1987	Saudi Arabia	34%	-	-	Hand Delivered	716	81%	Males smoked more sticks per day than female physicians
Nutbeam & Catford [91]	1987	Wales	14%	17%	0%	Postal Survey	310	60%	Almost one-quarter of female physicians were ex-smokers
Hughes et al [92]	1987	United States	4%	-	-	Postal Survey	1754	60%	Psychiatry residents had the highest smoking rate
Davies & Rajan [93]	1987	United Kingdom	3%	-	-	Postal Survey	94	72%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Cheng & Lam [94]	1987	Hong Kong	5%	7%	0%	Postal Survey	133	88%	Only 8% of female physicians had ever smoked tobacco
Stillman et al [95]	1987	United States	6%	-	-	Postal Survey	6050	69%	A no-smoking hospital policy helped reduce the smoking rate
Sarkar et al [96]	1987	India	32%	48%	3%	Interview	218	99%	Physicians aged 20–29 had the highest smoking rate
Franceschi et al [97]	1985	Italy	31%	-	-	Postal and Telephone	709	86%	Over half of the smokers reported no attempt to quit smoking
Linn et al [98]	1984	United States	4%	-	-	Postal and Telephone	211	67%	A further 2% smoked either weekly or monthly
Joossens et al [99]	1983	Belgium	32%	34%	16%	Postal Survey	2157	67%	Around half of the smokers were evaluated as being dissonant
Kaetsu et al [100]	1983	Japan	43%	45%	9%	Postal Survey	4232	84%	Male physicians younger than 40 had the highest smoking rate
Sachs [101,102]	1983	United States	12%	-	-	Conference Survey	594	27%	Smoking was higher among non-practicing specialists
Seiler [103]	1983*	Scotland	19%	-	-	Postal Survey	607	81%	Almost half of smoking doctors had spouses who also smoked
Senior [104]	1982*	Canada	19%	-	-	Hand Delivered	88	52%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Fortmann et al [105]	1982	United States	8%	-	-	Postal Survey	221	62%	Physicians older than 46 years had the highest smoking rate
Hay [106]	1981	New Zealand	15%	15%	13%	Census Data	4937	97%^h	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to nurses
Ballal [107]	1980	Sudan	-	46%	1%	Postal and Hand Delivered	753	72%	Some respiratory symptoms were more common among smokers
Wyshak et al [108]	1979	United States	14%	-	-	Postal Survey	289	70%	Fewer physicians smoked when compared to lawyers
Wells et al [109]	1978	United States	-	15%	-	Hand Delivered	151	76%	Surgeons/obstetricians had the highest smoking rates
Dodds et al [110]	1977	Australia	21%	22%	16%	Postal and Telephone	275	80%	Physicians aged 50–59 years had the highest smoking rate
Hay [111]	1976	New Zealand	-	20%	17%	Census Data	4089	97%^h	Obstetricians had the highest smoking rates of all
Aarø et al [112]	1974	Norway	-	35%	22%	Postal Survey	1138	95%	Male physicians aged 55–64 had the highest smoking rate
Rankin et al [113]	1974	Australia	14%	14%	17%	Postal Survey	1276	69%	Physicians aged 50–59 years had the highest smoking rate

^aIncluding the reference number as listed in this manuscript, ^bYear in which the study was undertaken – not the year of publication (Studies that continued over more than one year list the latest year. In cases where the study year was not listed, manuscripts are arranged by publication year and marked with an asterisk*), ^cSmoking rates rounded to the nearest whole number, ^dResponse rates rounded to the nearest whole number (as some studies investigated multiple occupational groups, response rates may be indicative of the entire group rather than just physicians), ^eSubjects were restricted to Hispanic physicians living in the United States, ^fSubjects were restricted to Asian-Indian physicians living in the United States, ^gThe survey used a convenience sample with an unspecified response rate, ^hResponse rate of the entire census, ⁱSubjects were restricted to African-American physicians living in the United States
Smith and Leggat BMC Public Health 2007 7:115 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-115