Table 5 |
||||||
| Listing of animal lineages with known biogeographic transitions between Andean and Amazonian habitats | ||||||
| Class | Group | Taxa | Highest elevation | Number of transitions | Ages of transition | Source(s) |
| ANDES-TO-AMAZON | ||||||
| Mammals | vesper mice (Sigmodontinae) | Calomys | 5000 m | 1* | 16.3% in cyt-b (8.2 Ma) a | [21] |
| Mammals | olingos (Procyonidae) | Bassaricyon | 2750 m | 1* | 3.5 Ma | [93] |
| Birds | antshrikes (Thamnophilidae) | Thamnophilus | 2300 m | 1 | < 1 Ma b | [14] |
| Birds | tanagers (Thraupidae) | Tangara | 3500 m | 6 | 7.5, 7.5, 5, 3, 3, and 3 Ma c | [94,95] |
| Birds | spinetails (Furnariidae) | Cranioleuca | 4400 m | 2 | 1 and 0.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | miners (Furnariidae) | Geositta | 4900 m | 3 | 10, 9, and 5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | ovenbirds (Furnariidae) | Cinclodes | 5200 m | 1 | 0.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | greenfinches (Fringillidae) | Carduelis | 4600 m | 2 | 1 and 0.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | parrots (Psittacidae) | Pionus (menstruus group) | 3000 m | 1* | 5.6 Ma | [15] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Dendrobates | 1958 m | 3 | 21.1, 6.5, and 2.4 Ma d | [20] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Hyloxalus | 3500 m | 5 | 7.4, 5.6, 5.1, 4.7, and 1.6 Ma d | [20] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Ameerega | 2020 m | 4 | 7.2, 6.7, 6.1, and 3.1 Ma d | [20,96] |
| Amphibians | salamanders (Plethodontidae) | Bolitoglossa | 2000 m | 1 | 23.6 Ma e | [97] |
| Insects | butterflies (Nymphalidae) | Ithomia | 2400 m | 2 | 10 and 7 Ma f | [98] |
| Insects | butterflies (Nymphalidae) | Napeogenes | 2700 m | 2 | 11 and 2 Ma f | [98] |
| AMAZON-TO-ANDES | ||||||
| Mammals | spiny tree-rats (Echimyidae) | Mesomys | 1581 m | 1 | 2.8–1.2 Ma | This study |
| Mammals | bamboo rats (Echimyidae) | bamboo rat clade | 3200 m | 1 | 9.0–4.2 Ma | This study |
| Mammals | mouse opossums (Didelphidae) | Marmosa (Micoureus) | 1634 m | 1* | 12.7% in cyt-b (6.4 Ma) a | [19,99,100] |
| Mammals | night monkeys (Nyctipithecidae) | Aotus | 3200 m | 1 | < 1 Ma g | [101] |
| Mammals | howler monkeys (Atelidae) | Alouatta | 3200 m | 2 | 2.5 and 2.5 Ma g | [101] |
| Birds | antshrikes (Thamnophilidae) | Thamnophilus | 2300 m | 2 | 5.5–3 and 3.6–1.6 Ma b | [14] |
| Birds | flycatchers (Tyrannidae) | Leptopogon | 2700 m | 2 | 9–6 and 6–3 Ma | [12] |
| Birds | flycatchers (Tyrannidae) | Myarchus | 3000 m | 1 | 3 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | parrots (Psittacidae) | Pionus (sordidus group) | 3000 m | 1 | 3.0 Ma | [15] |
| Birds | parrots (Psittacidae) | Amazona | 3300 m | 2 | 2 and 1 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | tanagers (Thraupidae) | Tangara | 3500 m | 6 | 7, 4, 3.5, 3, 3, and 1 Ma c | [94,95] |
| Birds | trogons (Trogonidae) | Trogon | 3400 m | 2 | 7 and 6 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | potoos (Nyctibiidae) | Nyctibius | 2800 m | 1 | 7.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | blackbirds (Icteridae) | blackbird clade | 3200 m | 3 | 5, 4, and 3.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | oropendolas (Icteridae) | Psarocolius and relatives | 3300 m | 3 | 5.5, 2, and 1 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | orioles (Icteridae) | Icterus | 2800 m | 3 | 7, 5.5, and 1 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | woodcreepers (Furnariidae) | Xiphorhynchus | 2400 m | 2 | 5 and 3.5 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | woodcreepers (Furnariidae) | Dendrocincla | 2500 m | 1 | 7 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | woodpeckers (Picidae) | Veniliornis | 3600 m | 4 | 4, 3.5, 1, and 1 Ma c | [94] |
| Birds | swallows (Hirundininae) | Neotropical swallow clade | 4400 m | 4 | 11, 6, 3.5, and 2 Ma c | [94] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Dendrobates | 1958 m | 1 | 4.4 Ma d | [20] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Ameerega | 2020 m | 1 | 2.4 Ma d | [20] |
| Amphibians | poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) | Allobates | 2630 m | 5 | 21.8, 15.2, 10.6, 1.2, and 0.8 Ma d | [20] |
| Insects | butterflies (Riodinidae) | Ithomiola | 2100 m | 2 | not dated | [13] |
| Insects | butterflies (Nymphalidae) | Napeogenes | 2700 m | 2 | 5.5 and 4.5 Ma f | [98] |
a Divergences using cyt-b were converted to years using the rate 2% per Ma after Ferris et al. [102].
b Age of the T. ruficapillus – T. torquatus transition was estimated from Figure 3 and the age of other splits [14].
c Ages were estimated from Online Figure 2[94].
d Polarity and ages of transition were obtained from Figures 2 and S12 [20].
e The divergence of B. sp. Chilma from the remaining lowland forms Figures 3 and 5[97].
f Polarities and ages were estimated from Figure 2[98].
g Ages were estimated from Figure 4[101]; transitions were inferred from phylogenetic relationships and the IUCN database [32].
Polarity categories of “Andes-to-Amazon” or “Amazon-to-Andes” are based on inferences from phylogenies, geographic ranges of living taxa, and/or ancestral state reconstructions. An asterisk (*) denotes instances of outgroup uncertainty that could influence the polarity of a transition. Ages of transition are mean dates provided in the text of sources unless otherwise noted. The highest elevations for each taxon are reported from localities or databases [1,32].
Upham et al.
Upham et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2013 13:191 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-191
